Automaticity (and Fluency)

Record 1 of 10

Derwing, Tracey M; Munro, Murray J; Thomson, Ronald I; Rossiter, Marian J. 2009. The Relationship Between L1 Fluency And L2 Fluency Development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 31. 533-557.

A fundamental question in the study of second language (L2) fluency is the extent to which temporal characteristics of speakers' first language (L1) productions predict the same characteristics in the L2. A close relationship between a speaker's L1 and L2 temporal characteristics would suggest that fluency is governed by an underlying trait. This longitudinal investigation compared L1 and L2 English fluency at three times over 2 years in Russian- and Ukrainian- (which we will refer to here as Slavic) and Mandarin-speaking adult immigrants to Canada. Fluency ratings of narratives by trained judges indicated a relationship between the L1 and the L2 in the initial stages of L2 exposure, although this relationship was found to be stronger in the Slavic than in the Mandarin learners. Pauses per second, speech rate, and pruned syllables per second were all related to the listeners' judgments in both languages, although vowel durations were not. Between-group differences may reflect differential exposure to spoken English and a closer relationship between Slavic languages and English than between Mandarin and English. Suggestions for pedagogical interventions and further research are also proposed.

Record 2 of 10

Trenchs-Parera, Mireia. 2009. Effects of Formal Instruction and a Stay Abroad on the Acquisition of Native-Like Oral Fluency. The Canadian Modern Language Review 65. 365-393.

The study describes the effects of formal instruction (FI) and a stay

abroad (SA) on the fluency displayed by 19 bilingual EFL undergraduate

non-native speakers (NNSs). It includes data from 10 native speakers

(NSs). The relative frequencies of seven dysfluency phenomena at three

data-collection points are compared statistically, and a linear

regression analysis is performed between NS and NNS data. A strategic

change is revealed. After FI, learners adjust their speech to an NS

pattern, but disruptions -- especially self-repetitions, pauses, and

non-lexical fillers -- are still frequent. The SA serves to correct

this somewhat while maintaining the NS-like tendency. There is a

decrease in the number of phenomena that may be perceived as signs of

insecurity, producing the impression of more fluent speech. These

phenomena are replaced by increases in lexical fillers that may make

NNS speech appear lexically richer. Both FI and SA, therefore, are

shown to be positive contexts of acquisition.

Record 3 of 10

Rossiter, Marian J. 2009. Perceptions of L2 Fluency by Native and Non-native Speakers of English. The Canadian Modern Language Review 65. 395-412.

This article explores perceptions of the speaking fluency of 24 adult

ESL learners (11 men, 13 women) who narrated picture stories at Time 1

and again 10 weeks later at Time 2. One-minute excerpts from each

rendition were randomized and played to 15 novice and six expert

native speakers of English (undergraduate education students and

experienced ESL teachers holding graduate degrees, respectively).

Because of the increasingly frequent use of English among non-native

speakers (NNSs) throughout the world, 15 advanced NNSs of English were

also included in the study. All three groups of listeners rated and

recorded their impressions of the fluency of the stimuli. The ratings

of all three groups were highly inter-correlated at Times 1 and 2.

Fluency ratings correlated with the temporal measures of total pause

per second and pruned syllables per second. Pausing, self-repetition,

speech rate, and fillers accounted for three-quarters of the negative

temporal impressions recorded by listeners; salient non-temporal

impressions included pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary.

*Record 4 of 10* (This is my favorite)

Piolat, Annie; Barbier, Marie-Laure; Roussey, Jean-Yves. 2008. Fluency and Cognitive Effort During First- and Second-Language Notetaking and Writing by Undergraduate Students. European Psychologist 13. 114-125.

This study concerns the cognitive effort expended and the difficulties

experienced by undergraduate students as they took notes and wrote a

text based on a lecture given in French, their primary language (L1),

and in English (L2). The 21 participants had studied English (L2) for

7 years before attending the university and they had taken 3 years of

intensive courses at the university in order to obtain their first

diploma in English ("license"). Participants were first trained on a

secondary task that allowed us to measure their cognitive effort while

they reformed two other main tasks in both languages, namely (1)

listening and taking notes on the main ideas of the lecture, and (2)

writing a text based on their notes. Participants also answered a

questionnaire about their difficulties with comprehension, taking

notes, making use of their notes, and writing in both languages. The

results indicated that writing processes were more effortful than

notetaking. Students' performance on the writing task did not vary

across languages. In contrast, the cognitive effort associated with

taking notes was greater for L2 than for L1, and writing speed was

slower. More difficulty was also experienced for not taking,

especially in L2, than in writing.

Record 5 of 10

Derwing, Tracey M; Munro, Murray J; Thomson, Ron I. 2008. A Longitudinal Study of ESL Learners' Fluency and Comprehensibility Development. Applied Linguistics 29. 359-380.

This longitudinal mixed-methods study compared the oral fluency of

well-educated adult immigrants from Mandarin and Slavic language

backgrounds (16 per group) enrolled in introductory English as a

second language (ESL) classes. Speech Samples were collected over a

2-year period, together with estimates of weekly English use. We also

conducted interviews at the last data collection session. The

participants' fluency and comprehensibility at three points over 22

months were judged by 33 native speakers of English. We examine the

learners' progress in light of their exposure to English outside of

their ESL class. The Slavic language speakers showed a small but

significant improvement in both fluency and comprehensibility, whereas

the Mandarin speakers' performance did not change over 2 years,

although both groups started at the same level of oral proficiency.

These differences may be attributable in part to degree of exposure to

English outside the ESL courses. Neither group had extensive exposure

outside of their classes because of employment and familial

responsibilities (although the Slavic language speakers reported more

opportunities). Thus both groups may have been disadvantaged by a lack

of oral fluency instruction. The findings, both quantitative and

qualitative, are interpreted using the Willingness to Communicate

framework; we also discuss implications for the language classroom.

Record 6 of 10

Hashemian, Mahmood; Nezhad, Mohammad Reza Telebi. 2007. The Development of Conceptual Fluency and Metaphorical Competence in L2 Learners. Linguistik Online 30. [np].

Conceptual Fluency (CF) & Metaphorical Competence (MC) have piqued

the interest of a number of L2 researchers. Leading the front are

Danesi (1992; 1995; 2003) & Johnson & Rosano (1993) who

contend that metaphorical language cannot afford to be ignored by L2

curricula anymore. Their push is to instill in L2 learners a more

functional communicative competence over a traditional formal

competence. This article reports on a study carried out to scrutinize

the development of CF & MC in Persian students of English. First,

a group of language students (95 freshmen, 92 sophomores, 139 juniors,

& 90 seniors) were tested to see whether they were conceptually

& metaphorically competent, & the results showed they were

almost bereft of such a competence, & the analysis of their

written discourse uncovered a very low level of metaphorical density.

The findings were in line with what Danesi (1992) has averred: L2

learners do not necessarily develop CF & MC after several years of

study. Then, the juniors partook in the study for a six-month period

in which they were exposed to & taught about the metaphorical

language of English. The post-test results were indicative that they

had developed their CF & MC to a large extent & that their

written discourse was almost as metaphorically dense as that of native

speakers. That is, the findings revealed that it is possible to

develop CF & MC in a classroom setting. Finally, the data

indicated that there is a relationship between CF & MC.

Record 7 of 10

Derwing, Tracey M; Thomson, Ron I; Munro, Murray J. 2006. English Pronunciation and Fluency Development in Mandarin and Slavic Speakers. System 34. 183-193.

The development of accent & fluency are traced in the speech of 20

Mandarin & 20 Slavic adult immigrants to Canada over a period of

10 months. The participants were enrolled in an ESL program but had no

special instruction in either pronunciation or fluency. The

immigrants' self-reported exposure to English outside of class was

used to determine whether there was a relationship between accent,

fluency, & voluntary contact with English. Judgment tasks were

carried out in which native English listeners assessed L2 speech

samples recorded at the outset of their studies, 2 months later, &

again 10 months after the first recording. The listeners' scalar

judgments of accentedness & fluency indicated that there was a

small improvement in accent over time, & that the Slavic learners

made significant progress in fluency, whereas the Mandarin

participants showed no improvement. The Slavic participants reported

significantly more contact with English speakers than did the Mandarin

speakers. Suggestions are made for ESL instruction & further

research.

Record 8 of 10

Derwing, Tracey M; Rossiter, Marian J; Munro, Murray J; Thomson, Ron I. 2004. Second Language Fluency: Judgments on Different Tasks. Language Learning 54. 655-679.

In this study, we determined whether untrained raters' assessments of

fluency in low-proficiency second language speech were related to

temporal measures & whether they varied across tasks. We collected

speech samples from 20 beginner Mandarin learners of English on

picture description, monologue, & dialogue tasks. Temporal

measures were made on each sample. Twenty-eight untrained judges rated

fluency, comprehensibility, & accentedness. Three trained raters

also judged samples for "goodness of prosody." The rating

data paralleled the speech measurements: speakers' performance on the

monologue & dialogue tasks was significantly better than on the

narratives; however, listeners' judgments of goodness of prosody did

not vary across tasks. Comprehensibility & fluency ratings were

highly correlated; fluency was more strongly related to

comprehensibility than to accentedness.

Record 9 of 10

Chandler, Jean. 2003. The Efficacy of Various Kinds of Error Feedback for Improvement in the Accuracy and Fluency of L2 Student Writing. Journal of Second Language Writing 12. 267-296.

This research uses experimental & control group data to show that

students' correction of grammatical & lexical errors between

assignments reduces such errors in subsequent writing over one

semester without reducing fluency or quality. A second study further

examines how error correction should be done. Should a teacher correct

errors or mark errors for student self-correction? If so, should the

teacher indicate location or type of error or both? Measures include

change in the accuracy of both revisions & of subsequent writing,

change in fluency, change in holistic ratings, student attitudes

toward the four different kinds of teacher response, & time

required by student & teacher for each kind of response. Findings

are that both direct correction & simple underlining of errors are

significantly superior to describing the type of error, even with

underlining, for reducing long-term error. Direct correction is best

for producing accurate revisions, & students prefer it because it

is the fastest & easiest way for them as well as the fastest way

for teachers over several drafts. However, students feel that they

learn more from self-correction, & simple underlining of errors

takes less teacher time on the first draft. Both are viable methods

depending on other goals.

Record 10 of 10

Iwahori, Yurika. 2008. Developing Reading Fluency: A Study of Extensive Reading in EFL. Reading in a Foreign Language 20. 70-91.

Due to the great interest of practitioners on reading fluency in first

language (L1) and second language (L2) English classroom settings,

fluency has become a hot topic. A number of studies have suggested

that an extensive reading (ER) program can lead to improvement of L2

learners' reading rate; however, studies about high school students

are scarce. Inspired by current issues in reading and previous ER

investigations, this study examined the effectiveness of ER on reading

rates of high school students in Japan. In this study, students were

provided with graded readers and comic books as reading material they

would find enjoyable. Pretests and posttests of reading rate and

language proficiency were administered and a t test was used to

compare means of the rates and language proficiency within groups.

Results indicate that ER is an effective approach to improve students'

rate and general language proficiency.